Pagan is the largest historic cultural landscape, located on a bend of the Ayeyarwady River in the central plain dry zone of Myanmar. This sacred landscape, measuring 13 km by 6 km, features an exceptional range of Buddhist art and architecture. The site bears testimony to the peak of Pagan civilization (11th–13th centuries CE), when it served as the capital of a regional empire. The intangible attributes of the site are reflected in Buddhist worship, merit-making activities, traditional cultural practices, and farming.
Pagan presents an almost arid landscape, characterized primarily by its sandy, wind-swept plains interspersed with vibrant pebbles and fossilized wood. The region is punctuated by peculiar, eroded ravines near Nyaung-U, while low, thorny trees such as euphoria, osiris, jujube, cutch, and the striking, white-barked acacia provide sparse shade. In areas where subsoil water is accessible, larger trees like tamarind, Indian elm, and Bombax rise majestically. Additionally, the presence of toddy-palm and palmyra adds to the diversity, while some of the more modest flora bloom attractively, Overall, the landscape appears to have remained largely unchanged since the 11th century, as noted by Henry Yule in 1855, up until the 2010s.
In 2019, Pagan was designated as a World Heritage Site, yet it continues to face numerous challenges in preserving its historic cultural landscape.
Tree Planting in Pagan: A Blend of Sacred Practice and Tourism
Since 2016, a novel tourism initiative has emerged in Pagan, offering tree planting services to Myanmar individuals residing abroad for occasions such as birthdays, anniversaries, memorials, and for plant enthusiasts. This service was tailored to meet the specific preferences of clients, particularly regarding the quantity and types of plants, most of which are non-indigenous species. Additionally, various local tourist activities – including team-building exercises, educational field trips, and excavation projects organized by schools, universities, private enterprises, and NGOs – incorporate tree-planting efforts in Pagan annually through the collaborative efforts of local tourism service providers.
In Buddhism, plants hold significant symbolic value. It is noted that several thousand Buddhas attained enlightenment beneath various trees. These trees hold great importance within the religious culture of Myanmar, symbolizing a deep connection to spirituality. The act of planting trees and other vegetation is not merely an environmental concern; it is also regarded as a sacred practice linked to donations made since the 11th century, as evidenced by stone inscriptions discovered in Pagan. This tradition persists in contemporary society, where individuals, regardless of their geographical location, often prioritize religious contributions in Pagan, with trees and plants being at the forefront of these efforts. The accessibility and longevity of trees and plants make them a practical choice for environmental and social contributions. Additionally, small and medium-sized travel agencies have played a pivotal role in promoting tree and plant plantations as a key aspect of their tourism offerings.
Plants’ Role in Pagan’s Historical Landscape Management
A species can extend its geographical distribution to new areas through its inherent dispersal mechanisms and strategies, thereby initiating a process of natural invasion or colonization. Conversely, biological invasions involving non-native species occur when humans facilitate the transport of these organisms beyond their indigenous ranges. Certain organisms, especially those that interact with higher plants, possess significant biodeterioration potential, which can lead to the development of pits and pose challenges for the preservation of cultural heritage. Among higher plants, trees are particularly likely to inflict the most detrimental effects on historic monuments. The inappropriate selection of plant species can have severe repercussions, ultimately resulting in social, environmental, and economic harm.
In light of existing studies, a total of 23 indigenous species were frequently incorporated into the traditional landscape. Archaeological stone inscriptions indicate that between the 11th and 13th centuries, these trees were purposefully utilized to define boundaries between agricultural plots and to signify territorial limits. Additionally, they functioned as reference points for land surveying, served as foundational elements for retaining walls, and played a role in water management systems, all while offering protection against the extreme heat characteristic of the arid climate.
Challenges of Non-Native Species in Pagan’s Cultural Landscape
The gradual shift towards a more colorful cultural heritage landscape is attributed to a lack of knowledge, awareness, and regulatory frameworks among both the community and government authorities. As a result, over 9,333 acres in the Nyaung Oo district have been planted by government entities, with more than 6,000 non-indigenous plant species introduced in the Pagan property zone.
The establishment of non-native plant species in the cultural landscape of a World Heritage site, often referred to as plant colonization, plays a crucial role in ecosystem dynamics and biodiversity. Concurrently, the concept of responsible tourism emphasizes the importance of sustainable practices that minimize environmental impact while promoting conservation efforts. By integrating these two areas, it becomes possible to foster a deeper understanding of how tourism can support the preservation of native flora and contribute to ecological balance. Thus, the attraction to colorful trees and plants encompasses a blend of emotional, cultural, and environmental considerations but should not apply to Pagan, a heritage site.
The historical landscape and traditional cultural heritage of Pagan are undergoing a gradual transformation, primarily due to the encroachment of vegetation that poses a significant risk to its Outstanding Universal Value, as well as its authenticity and integrity. When public awareness is insufficient, the importance of effective enforcement becomes increasingly paramount.
Conclusion: The Essential Role of Legal Frameworks in Heritage Protection
Laws and regulations play a crucial role in safeguarding heritage by establishing frameworks that ensure the preservation and protection of cultural, historical, and natural resources. These legal instruments provide necessary guidelines and standards for the management of heritage sites, preventing degradation and unauthorized alterations. Furthermore, they facilitate the recognition of the intrinsic value of heritage, promoting public awareness and engagement in conservation efforts. By enforcing compliance and imposing penalties for violations, laws and regulations serve as essential tools in maintaining the integrity of heritage, thereby fostering a sense of identity and continuity within communities and authorities.
Plants colonization on Ta-wet-hpaya, monument 842 at Pagan (Photo by Min Hsann, 2023)
Zay Myo Lin is known as a heritage influencer in Myanmar but prefers to be recognized as the founder of the Technical Support Team, Pagan, established in 2016. He is also a monument conservator in various UNESCO reports. His career began in Singapore as a project engineer and manager before he founded his own engineering firm, specializing in conservation and restoration in Myanmar. He is currently pursuing a Master’s degree at Silpakorn University, Thailand, under the mentorship of Ass. Prof. Horáček from the Palacky University Olomouc.